Patricia S. Lemer shares her 40-plus years of expertise in this blog post about prioritizing interventions for autism and other neurodevelopmental disorders.
Families sometimes share that they are confused about the order in which to pursue interventions for their child. They hear from well-meaning friends, parents and teachers about the benefits of various treatments. Which should they try? B6 and zinc? Auditory training? Special glasses? Tutoring? If only a sequence were available to guide them…
Optimum Therapies at Each Age Level
My editorial attempts to grant your wish. I have devised the following guide to clarify how to prioritize interventions for autism, PDD-NOS, SPD and ADHD. Remember that every child is unique. Find experienced professionals within each specialty who will take a very thorough developmental history before suggesting an individual protocol. Then, get a second opinion before you decide upon a course of treatment. Next, understand that a child’s “age” is not chronological but developmental. A child is as old as she acts. Determine whether your child’s developmental skills are on target and whether lower level needs have been addressed.
Focus on one or two primary therapies that utilize about 75% of your available time and financial resources. You may want to select another, secondary, therapy that will take up 15%. A less intensive, “fun,” therapy will complement the goals of the other treatments.
Step 1 (Age 0-3)
Therapies at this level lay the foundation for motor, sensory-motor, language and cognitive development, which must wait until the body is ready physiologically. Nutrition includes both dietary modification and nutritional supplementation. A proper protocol can reverse damage done by allergic and toxin reactions and boost the immune system. Occupational therapy, physical therapy and movement of all kinds (especially sensory integrative) enhance binocular vision, depth perception, bilaterality and language. Balance and anti-gravity activities stimulate the language center of the brain. If your child had a difficult birth, osteopathic manipulation and craniosacral therapy can help realign bones to allow bodily fluids to flow appropriately.
Step 2 (Age 4-7)
Once the body is ready, language should emerge naturally, as it does in typical development. If language is delayed, it is time to focus on understanding and expression with a speech-language pathologist who utilizes sensory integration techniques. Different types of auditory training enhance language and eye movements by stimulating the vestibular system, located in the inner ear. Play therapy encourages a child to use language purposefully through interpersonal interactions. Music therapy, using a variety of instruments, combines auditory, social and movement activities with singing and dancing.
Step 3 (Age 8-12)
Now, focus on academics. Ascertain that the child’s sensory systems are working properly. If not, in-office and home vision therapy by a behavioral optometrist, using a combination of lenses, prisms and movement-based activities, may be necessary to resolve eye movement difficulties or binocular dysfunction. There is a myriad of ways to teach reading and writing. Tutoring by an experienced practitioner using a specialized program or trade books comes next. If vision is working well, a child will “break the code” and read with good comprehension. Pre-teen years are a fine time to build self-esteem through martial arts or group psychotherapy.
Step 4 (Age 13-18)
Step 4 is an extension of Step 3. Further work on academics and a focus on self-esteem are essential. This is the time to begin transition planning and to determine post-secondary school options. As your child’s hormonal changes occur, revisit nutritional needs. Supplements may need adjusting as eating habits change. Vision therapy may move from work on binocular skills to visual thinking and organization. Horseback riding (hippotherapy) is an amazingly empowering intervention for teens unable to participate in group sports.
Step 5 (Age 19-Adult)
Resolving delays does not necessarily end because a child moves into adulthood. There are many ways to fine-tune and encourage growth. Depending on his literacy level, a child now develops life skills in the working world. A complete evaluation of vocational aptitudes and interests is essential. Grooming, cooking and using money are all part of vocational training. This can focus on getting and keeping a job as well as developing hobbies.
It is important that adults with disabilities find pleasure in animals, plants, the out-of-doors and other alternatives to television and computer games. Whatever the age of your child, use this guide to choose appropriate interventions. Trying an interesting new option may make a huge difference.
About Patricia S. Lemer LPC MEd
Patricia S. Lemer is a licensed professional counselor, holding a Masters of Education in counseling and learning disabilities from Boston College and a Masters in Business from Johns Hopkins University. She practiced as an educational diagnostician for over 40 years.
She was a co-founder and served as Executive Director of the international non-profit organization Developmental Delay Resources (DDR). After DDR merged with Epidemic Answers, she became Chairman of the Board. When she retired from the board, she became an emeritus board member.
She is the author of three books, the most recent of which is Outsmarting Autism, Updated and Expanded: Build Healthy Foundations for Communication, Socialization, and Behavior at All Ages (North Atlantic Books, 2019).
Lemer wrote over 50 editorials for "New Developments," the quarterly newsletter of Developmental Delay Resources (DDR), from 1995 - 2009. When DDR wound down, she wrote an online blog, "After the Diagnosis, Then What?" from 2009-2017. Her articles and blogs have been updated and archived on the Epidemic Answers website.
Since 2019, Patricia Lemer has recorded a bimonthly podcast, "The Autism Detective." In these hour-long shows, she interviews parents and professionals about their experiences in maximizing the potential of individuals on the autism spectrum. Over 100 episodes are available on Spotify and other online platforms. To learn more, go to PatriciaLemer.com and OutsmartingAutism.com
Still Looking for Answers?
Visit the Epidemic Answers Practitioner Directory to find a practitioner near you.
Join us inside our online membership community for parents, Healing Together, where you’ll find even more healing resources, expert guidance, and a community to support you every step of your child’s healing journey.
Sources & References
Ābele, S., et al. Specific Carbohydrate Diet (SCD/GAPS) and Dietary Supplements for Children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder. Proc. Latv. Acad. Sci. 2021;75:417–425.
Accardo, P.J., et al. Toe walking in autism: further observations. J Child Neurol. 2015 Apr;30(5):606-9.
Adam, G., et al. The influence of choline treatment on behavioral and neurochemical autistic-like phenotype in Mthfr-deficient mice. Transl Psychiatry. 2020 Sep 18;10(1):316.
Adams, J.B., et al. Comprehensive Nutritional and Dietary Intervention for Autism Spectrum Disorder-A Randomized, Controlled 12-Month Trial. Nutrients. 2018 Mar 17;10(3).
Adams, J.B., et al. Effect of a vitamin/mineral supplement on children and adults with autism. BMC Pediatr. 2011;11:111.
Adams, J.B., et al. Gastrointestinal Flora and Gastrointestinal Status in Children with Autism—Comparisons to Typical Children and Correlation with Autism Severity. BMC Gastroenterol. 2011;11:22.
Adams, J.B., et al. Mercury in first-cut baby hair of children with autism versus typically-developing children. Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry. 2007 Jun;70(12):1046-51.
Adams, J.B., et al. Mercury, Lead, and Zinc in Baby Teeth of Children with Autism Versus Controls. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. 2007 Jun;70(12):1046-51.
Adams, J.B., et al. Nutritional and metabolic status of children with autism vs. neurotypical children, and the association with autism severity. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2011 Jun 8;8(1):34.
Adams, J.B., et al. Vitamin/mineral/micronutrient supplement for autism spectrum disorders: a research survey. BMC Pediatr. 2022 Oct 13;22(1):590.
Adams, L.J., et al. Infant feeding method and special educational need in 191,745 Scottish schoolchildren: A national, population cohort study. PLoS Med. 2023 Apr 6;20(4):e1004191.
Aguilera, M., et al. Antibiotic-induced dysbiosis alters host-bacterial interactions and leads to colonic sensory and motor changes in mice. Gut Microbes. 2015;6(1):10-23.
Ahn, R.R., et al. Prevalence of parents’ perceptions of sensory processing disorders among kindergarten children. Am J Occup Ther. May-Jun 2004;58(3):287-93.
Alabdali, A., et al. A key role for an impaired detoxification mechanism in the etiology and severity of autism spectrum disorders. Behav Brain Funct. 2014;10:14.
Alabdali, A., et al. Association of social and cognitive impairment and biomarkers in autism spectrum disorders. J Neuroinflammation. 2014;11:4.
Alampi, J.D., et al. Gestational Exposure to Toxicants and Autistic Behaviors using Bayesian Quantile Regression. Am J Epedemiol. 2021 Sep 1;190(9):1803-1813.
Alberti, A., et al. Sulphation Deficit in “Low-Functioning” Autistic Children: A Pilot Study. Biol. Psychiatry. 1999;46:420–424.
Aldad, T.S., et al. Fetal Radiofrequency Radiation Exposure From 800-1900 Mhz-Rated Cellular Telephones Affects Neurodevelopment and Behavior in Mice. Sci Rep. 2012;2:312.
Amminger, G.P., et al. Omega-3 fatty acids supplementation in children with autism: a double-blind randomized, placebo-controlled pilot study. Biol Psychiatry. 2007 Feb 15;61(4):551-3.
Ashraghi, R.S., et al. Early Disruption of the Microbiome Leading to Decreased Antioxidant Capacity and Epigenetic Changes: Implications for the Rise in Autism. Front. Cell. Neurosci., 15 Aug 2018.
Ashwood, P., et al. Elevated plasma cytokines in autism spectrum disorders provide evidence of immune dysfunction and are associated with impaired behavioral outcome. Brain Behav Immun. 2011 Jan;25(1):40-5.
Ashwood, P., et al. The immune response in autism: a new frontier for autism research. Journal of Leukocyte Biology. 2006 Jul;80(1):1-15.
Atladóttir, H.Ó., et al. Association of family history of autoimmune diseases and autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics. 2009 Aug;124(2):687-94.
Atladóttir, H.Ó., et al. Autism after infection, febrile episodes, and use during pregnancy: an exploratory study. Pediatrics. 2012 Dec;130(6):e1447-54.
Austin, C., et al. Elemental Dynamics in Hair Accurately Predict Future Autism Spectrum Disorder Diagnosis: An International Multi-Center Study. J Clin Med. 2022 Dec 1;11(23):7154.
Baker, S. Canaries and Miners. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine. Nov-Dec 2008;14(6):24-6.
Baker, S., et al. Case Study: Rapid Complete Recovery From An Autism Spectrum Disorder After Treatment of Aspergillus With The Antifungal Drugs Itraconazole And Sporanox. Integr Med (Encinitas). 2020 Aug;19(4):20-27.
Barnhill, K., et al. Brief Report: Implementation of a Specific Carbohydrate Diet for a Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Fragile X Syndrome. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2020;50:1800–1808.
Barrett, B. Substantial lifelong cost of autism spectrum disorder. J Pediatr. 2014;165(5):1068-9.
Bateman, C. Autism–mitigating a global epidemic. S Afr Med J. 2013;103(5):276-7.
Ben-Sasson, A., et al. Sensory over-responsivity in elementary school: prevalence and social-emotional correlates. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2009 Jul;37(5):705-16.
Berding, K., et al. Diet Can Impact Microbiota Composition in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder. Front. Neurosci. 2018;12:515.
Bernard, S., et al. Autism: a novel form of mercury poisoning. Med Hypotheses. 2001 Apr;56(4):462-71.
Binder, D.K., et al. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Growth Factors. 2004 Sep;22(3):123-31.
Bittker, S.S., et al. Postnatal Acetaminophen and Potential Risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder among Males. Behav Sci (Basel). 2020 Jan 1;10(1):26.
Bitsika, V., et al. Hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis daily fluctuation, anxiety and age interact to predict cortisol concentrations in boys with an autism spectrum disorder. Physiol Behav. 2015;138:200-7.
Bjørklund, G., et al. Gastrointestinal alterations in autism spectrum disorder: What do we know? Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2020 Nov:118:111-120.
Blaxill, Mark, et al. Autism Tsunami: the Impact of Rising Prevalence on the Societal Cost of Autism in the United States. J Autism Dev Disord. 2022 Jun;52(6):2627-2643.
Blaylock, R.L. A possible central mechanism in autism spectrum disorders, part 1. Altern Ther Health Med. 2008 Nov-Dec;14(6):46-53.
Blaylock, R.L. A possible central mechanism in autism spectrum disorders, part 2: immunoexcitotoxicity. Altern Ther Health Med. 2009 Jan-Feb;15(1):60-7.
Blaylock, R.L. A possible central mechanism in autism spectrum disorders, part 3: the role of excitotoxin food additives and the synergistic effects of other environmental toxins. Altern Ther Health Med. 2009 Mar-Apr;15(2):56-60.
Blaylock, R.L., et al. Immune-glutamatergic dysfunction as a central mechanism of the autism spectrum disorders. Curr Med Chem. 2009;16(2):157-70.
Boat, T.F., et al. Prevalence of Learning Disabilities. Mental Disorders and Disabilities Among Low-Income Children. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2015 Oct 28. 16.
Boris, M.J., et al. Pollen Exposure as a Cause for the Deterioration of Neurobehavioral Function in Children with Autism and Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder. J of Nutritional and Environmental Medicine. Mar 2004;14(1):47 – 54.
Borre, Y.E., et al. Microbiota and neurodevelopmental windows: implications for brain disorders. Trends Mol Med. 2014 Sep;20(9):509-18.
Bouder, et al. Brief report: Quantifying the impact of autism coverage on private insurance premiums. J Autism Dev Disord. 2009;39(6):953-7.
Bradstreet, et al. Biomarker-guided interventions of clinically relevant conditions associated with autism spectrum disorders and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Altern Med Rev. 2010;15(1):15-32.
Bransfield, R.C., et al. The association between tick-borne infections, Lyme borreliosis and autism spectrum disorders. Medical Hypotheses. 2008;70(5):967-74.
Breitenkamp, A.F., et al. Voltage-gated Calcium Channels and Autism Spectrum Disorders. Curr Mol Pharmacol. 2015;8(2):123-32.
Brown, et al. Observable essential fatty acid deficiency markers and autism spectrum disorder. Breastfeed Rev. 2014;22(2):21-6.
Brudnak, M.A., et al. Enzyme-based therapy for autism spectrum disorders -- is it worth another look? Med Hypotheses. 2002 May;58(5):422-8.
Buescher, et al. Costs of autism spectrum disorders in the United Kingdom and the United States. JAMA Pediatr. 2014;168(8):721-8.
Buie, T., et al. Evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of gastrointestinal disorders in individuals with ASDs: a consensus report. Pediatrics. 2010 Jan;125 Suppl 1:S1-18.
Buie, T., et al. Recommendations for evaluation and treatment of common gastrointestinal problems in children with ASDs. Pediatrics. 2010 Jan;125 Suppl 1:S19-29.
Bull, G., et al. Indolyl-3-acryloylglycine (IAG) is a putative diagnostic urinary marker for autism spectrum disorders. Med Sci Monit. 2003;9(10):CR422-5.
Büsselberg, D. Calcium channels as target sites of heavy metals. Toxicol Lett. 1995 Dec:82-83:255-61.
Camilleri, M. Serotonin in the gastrointestinal tract. Curr Opin Endrocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2009 Feb;16(1):53-9.
Cardinal, D.N., et al. The Maturing of Facilitated Communication: A Means Toward Independent Communication. Res. Pract. Persons Severe Disabil. 2014; (39)189–194.
Carlo, G.L., et al. Wireless radiation in the aetiology and treatment of autism: clinical observations and mechanisms. Journal of the Australasian College of Nutritional and Environmental Medicine, 26(2), 3–7.
Cekici, H., et al. Current Nutritional Approaches in Managing Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Review. Nutr. Neurosci. 2019;22:145–155.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevalence and Characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorder Among Children Aged 8 Years — Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 Sites, United States, 2020. Accessed 24 Mar 2023.
Cheng, N., et al. Metabolic Dysfunction Underlying Autism Spectrum Disorder and Potential Treatment Approaches. Front Mol Neurosci. 2017 Feb 21:10:34.
Chistol, L.T., et al. Sensory Sensitivity and Food Selectivity in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2018;48:583–591.
Clarke, E.B., et al. Understanding profound autism: implications for stigma and supports. Front Psychiatry. 2024 Jan 22:15:1287096.
Cleary, D.B., et al. A Parent-Mediated Intervention for Newborns at Familial Likelihood of Autism: Initial Feasibility Study in the General Population. Adv Neurodev Disord. 2022;6(4):494-505.
Connolly, A.M., et al. Serum autoantibodies to brain in Landau-Kleffner variant, autism, and other neurologic disorders. The Journal of Pediatrics. 1999 May;134(5):607-13.
Courchesne, V., et al. Autistic children at risk of being underestimated: school-based pilot study of a strength-informed assessment. Molecular Autism. 2015 Mar 6;6:12.
Critchfield, et al. The potential role of probiotics in the management of childhood autism spectrum disorders. Gastroenterol Res Pract. 2011;2011:161358.
Cubala-Kucharska M. The review of most frequently occurring medical disorders related to aetiology of autism and the methods of treatment. Acta Neurobiol Exp (Wars). 2010;70(2):141-6.
Curran, E.A., et al. Research review: Birth by caesarean section and development of autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2015 May;56(5):500-8.
Currenti, S.A. Understanding and determining the etiology of autism. Cell Mol Neurobiol. 2010 Mar;30(2):161-71.
D'Adamo, C.R., et al. Reversal of Autism Symptoms among Dizygotic Twins through a Personalized Lifestyle and Environmental Modification Approach: A Case Report and Review of the Literature. J Pers Med. 2024, 14(6), 641.
Dale, R.C., et al. Encephalitis lethargica syndrome: 20 new cases and evidence of basal ganglia autoimmunity. Brain. 2004 Jan;127(Pt 1):21-33.
Darling, A.L., et al. Association between maternal vitamin D status in pregnancy and neurodevelopmental outcomes in childhood: results from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). Br J Nutr. 2017 Jun;117(12):1682-1692.
Dasdaq, S., et al. Effects of 2.4 GHz radiofrequency radiation emitted from Wi-Fi equipment on microRNA expression in brain tissue. Int J Radiat Biol. 2015 Jul;91(7):555-61.
Dave, D., et al. The effect of an increase in autism prevalence on the demand for auxiliary healthcare workers : evidence from California. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research; 2012. 37 p.p.
D’Eufemia, P., et al. Abnormal intestinal permeability in children with autism. Acta Paediatr. 1996 Sep;85(9):1076-9.
Deisher, T.A., et al. Impact of environmental factors on the prevalence of autistic disorder after 1979. J Public Health and Epidemiology. Sep 2014;6(9):271-286.
de Magistris, et al. Alterations of the intestinal barrier in patients with autism spectrum disorders and in their first-degree relatives. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2010;51(4):418-24.
De Magistris. L., et al. Antibodies against Food Antigens in Patients with Autistic Spectrum Disorders. BioMed Res. Int. 2013;2013:729349.
Deth, R., et al. How environmental and genetic factors combine to cause autism: A redox/methylation hypothesis. Neurotoxicology. 2008;29(1):190-201.
Doreswamy, S., et al. Effects of Diet, Nutrition, and Exercise in Children With Autism and Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Literature Review. Cureus. 2020;12:e12222.
Dyńka, D., et al. The Role of Ketogenic Diet in the Treatment of Neurological Diseases. Nutrients. 2022 Nov 24;14(23):5003.
Egset, K., et al. Magno App: Exploring Visual Processing in Adults with High and Low Reading Competence. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research. 07 Jan 2020.
Elamin, N.E., et al. Brain autoantibodies in autism spectrum disorder. Biomark Med. 2014;8(3):345-52.
El-Ansary, A., et al. Neuroinflammation in autism spectrum disorders. J Neuroinflammation. 2012;9:265.
El-Ansary, A., et al. Lipid mediators in plasma of autism spectrum disorders. Lipids Health Dis. 2012;11:160.
El-Rashidy, O., et al. Ketogenic Diet versus Gluten Free Casein Free Diet in Autistic Children: A Case-Control Study. Metab. Brain Dis. 2017;32:1935–1941.
Eppright, T.D., et al. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, infantile autism, and elevated blood-lead: a possible relationship. Mo Med. 1996;93(3):136-8).
Erickson, C.A., et al. Gastrointestinal Factors in Autistic Disorder: A Critical Review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2005 Dec;35(6):713-27.
Faber, S., et al. A cleanroom sleeping environment’s impact on markers of oxidative stress, immune dysregulation, and behavior in children with autism spectrum disorders. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2015;15:71.
Fattorusso, A., et al. Autism Spectrum Disorders and the Gut Microbiota. Nutrients. 2019 Feb 28;11(3):521.
Fein, D., et al. Optimal outcome in individuals with a history of autism. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2013 Feb;54(2):195-205.
Feingold, B.F. Hyperkinesis and Learning Disabilities Linked to Artificial Food Flavors and Colors. Am. J. Nurs. 1975;75:797–803.
Feng, P., et al. A review of probiotics in the treatment of autism spectrum disorders: Perspectives from the gut-brain axis. Front Microbiol. 2023 Mar 16:14:1123462.
Fezer, G.F., et al. Perinatal Features of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Rev Paul Pediatr. 2017 Apr-Jun;35(2):130-135.
Frisch, M., et al. Ritual circumcision and risk of autism spectrum disorder in 0- to 9-year-old boys: national cohort study in Denmark. J R Soc Med. 2015 Jul;108(7):266-79.
Frustaci, A., et al. Oxidative stress-related biomarkers in autism: systematic review and meta-analyses. Free Radic Biol Med. 2012;52(10):2128-41.
Frye, R.E., et al. Blocking and Binding Folate Receptor Alpha Autoantibodies Identify Novel Autism Spectrum Disorder Subgroups. Front Neurosci. 2016 Mar 9;10:80.
Frye, R.E., et al. Cerebral folate receptor autoantibodies in autism spectrum disorder. Mol Psychiatry. 2013 Mar;18(3):369-81.
Frye, R.E., et al. Metabolic pathology of autism in relation to redox metabolism. Biomark Med. 2014;8(3):321-30.
Frye, R.E., et al. Redox metabolism abnormalities in autistic children associated with mitochondrial disease. Transl Psychiatry. 2013;3:e273.
Gabis, L.V., et al. Improvement of Language in Children with Autism with Combined Donepezil and Choline Treatment. J Mol Neurosci. 2019 Oct;69(2):224-234.
Gabriele, S., et al. Blood serotonin levels in autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2014;24(6):919-29.
Gadow, K.D., et al. Association of COMT (Val158Met) and BDNF (Val66Met) gene polymorphisms with anxiety, ADHD and tics in children with autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. 2009;39(11):1542-51.
Gadow, K.D., et al. Association of DRD4 polymorphism with severity of oppositional defiant disorder, separation anxiety disorder and repetitive behaviors in children with autism spectrum disorder. Eur J Neurosci. 2010;32(6):1058-65.
Gardender, H., et al. Perinatal and neonatal risk factors for autism: a comprehensive meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2011 Aug;128(2):344-55.
Gebril, O.H., et al. HFE gene polymorphisms and the risk for autism in Egyptian children and impact on the effect of oxidative stress. Dis Markers. 2011;31(5):289-94.
Geier, D.A., et al. The biological basis of autism spectrum disorders: Understanding causation and treatment by clinical geneticists. Acta Neurobiol Exp (Wars). 2010;70(2):209-26.
Geier, M.R., et al. The potential importance of steroids in the treatment of autistic spectrum disorders and other disorders involving mercury toxicity. Med Hypotheses. 2005;64(5):946-54.
Ghalichi, F., et al. Effect of Gluten Free Diet on Gastrointestinal and Behavioral Indices for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Randomized Clinical Trial. World J. Pediatr. 2016;12:436–442.
Ghanizadeh, A. Increased glutamate and homocysteine and decreased glutamine levels in autism: a review and strategies for future studies of amino acids in autism. Dis Markers. 2013;35(5):281-6.
Glasson, E.J., et al. Perinatal factors and the development of autism: a population study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2004 Jun;61(6):618-27.
Goldani, A.A., et al. Biomarkers in autism. Front Psychiatry. 2014;5:100
Goncalves, M.V.M., et al. Pediatric acute-onset neuropsychiatric syndrome (PANS) misdiagnosed as autism spectrum disorder. Immunol Lett. 2018 Nov;203:52-53.
Gough, S., et al. Neuroprotection by the Ketogenic Diet: Evidence and Controversies. Front Nutr. 2021 Nov 23:8:782657.
Grandjean, P., et al. Developmental neurotoxicity of industrial chemicals. Lancet. 2006 Dec 16;368(9553):2167-78.
Grimaldi, R., et al. A prebiotic intervention study in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). Microbiome. 2018 Aug 2;6(1):133.
Guilford, T., et al. Deficient Glutathione in the Pathophysiology of Mycotoxin-Related Illness. Toxins (Basel). 2014 Feb 10;6(2):608-23.
Guyol, G. Who’s crazy here?: Steps for recovery without drugs for: ADD/ADHD, addiction & eating disorders, anxiety & PTSD, depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, autism. 1st U.S. ed. Stonington, CT: Ajoite Pub.; 2010. 123 p.p.
Hacohen, Y., et al. N‐methyl‐d‐aspartate (NMDA) receptor antibodies encephalitis mimicking an autistic regression. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2016 Oct;58(10):1092-4.
Hadjivassiliou, M., et al. Gluten sensitivity: from gut to brain. Lancet Neurol. 2010 Mar;9(3):318-30.
Hallmayer, J., et al. Genetic heritability and shared environmental factors among twin pairs with autism. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2011 Nov;68(11):1095-102.
Hamad, A.F., et al. Prenatal antibiotics exposure and the risk of autism spectrum disorders: A population-based cohort study. PLoS One. 2019 Aug 29;14(8):e0221921.
Hamlin, J.C., et al. Dietary intake and plasma levels of choline and betaine in children with autism spectrum disorders. Autism Res Treat. 2013;2013:578429.
Hartman, R.E., et al. Dietary Approaches to the Management of Autism Spectrum Disorders. Adv. Neurobiol. 2020;24:547–571.
Hauser, P., et al. Resistance to thyroid hormone: implications for neurodevelopmental research on the effects of thyroid hormone disruptors.Toxicol Ind Health. 1998 Jan-Apr;14(1-2):85-101.
Hejitz, R.D., et al. Normal gut microbiota modulates brain development and behavior. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011 Feb 15;108(7):3047-52.
Herbert, M.R., et al. Autism and Dietary Therapy: Case Report and Review of the Literature. J. Child. Neurol. 2013;28:975–982.
Herbert, M.R., et al. Autism and environmental genomics. Neurotoxicology. 2006;27(5):671-84.
Herbert, M.R, et al. Autism and EMF? Plausibility of a pathophysiological link–Part I. Pathophysiology 20.3 (2013): 191-209.
Herbert, M.R., et al. Autism and EMF? Plausibility of a pathophysiological link Part II. Pathophysiology 20.3 (2013): 211-234.
Herbert, M.R. Contributions of the environment and environmentally vulnerable physiology to autism spectrum disorders. Curr Opin Neurol. 2010 Apr;23(2):103-10.
Hertz-Picciotto, I., et al. The rise in autism and the role of age at diagnosis. Epidemiology. 2009 Jan;20(1):84-90.
Hertz-Picciotto, I., et al. Organophosphate exposures during pregnancy and child neurodevelopment: Recommendations for essential policy reforms. PLoS Med. 2018 Oct 24;15(10):e1002671.
Hertz-Picciotto, I., et al. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in relation to autism and developmental delay: a case-control study. Environ Health. 2011 Jan 5;10(1):1.
Hertz-Picciotto, I., et al. Prenatal exposures to persistent and non-persistent organic compounds and effects on immune system development. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2008 Feb;102(2):146-54.
Heyer, N.J., et al. Disordered porphyrin metabolism: a potential biological marker for autism risk assessment. Autism Res. 2012;5(2):84-92.
Holmes, A., et al. Reduced Levels of Mercury in First Baby Haircuts of Autistic Children. International Journal of Toxicology. Jul-Aug 2003;22(4):277-85.
Hopf, K.P., et al. Use and Perceived Effectiveness of Complementary and Alternative Medicine to Treat and Manage the Symptoms of Autism in Children: A Survey of Parents in a Community Population. J. Altern. Complement. Med. 2016;22:25–32.
Horn, J., et al. Role of Diet and Its Effects on the Gut Microbiome in the Pathophysiology of Mental Disorders. Transl. Psychiatry. 2022;12:164.
Horvath, K., et al. Autism and gastrointestinal symptoms. Curr Gastroenterol Rep. 2002 Jun;4(3):251-8.
Horvath, K., et al. Autistic disorder and gastrointestinal disease. Current Opinion in Pediatrics. 2002 Oct;14(5):583-7.
Horvath, K., et al. Gastrointestinal abnormalities in children with autistic disorder. Journal of Pediatrics. 1999 Nov;135(5):559-63.
Howsmon, D. P., et al. Multivariate techniques enable a biochemical classification of children with autism spectrum disorder versus typically‐developing peers: A comparison and validation study. Bioengineering & Translational Medicine. 2018. doi:10.1002/btm2.10095.
Hsu, C.-L., et al. The Effects of a Gluten and Casein-Free Diet in Children with Autism: A Case Report. Chang Gung Med. J. 2009;32:459–465.
Hyman, M. Autism: Is It All in the Head? Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine. Nov-Dec 2008;14(6):12-5.
Isaksson, J., et al. Brief Report: Association Between Autism Spectrum Disorder, Gastrointestinal Problems and Perinatal Risk Factors Within Sibling Pairs. J Autism Dev Disord. 2017 Aug;47(8):2621-2627.
Ivanovski, I., et al. Aluminum in brain tissue in autism. J Trace Elem Med Biol. 2019 Jan;51:138-140.
Jadavji, N.M., et al. B-vitamin and choline supplementation increases neuroplasticity and recovery after stroke. Neurobiol Dis. 2017 Jul;103:89-100.
Jafari, M.H., et al. The Relationship Between the Level of Copper, Lead, Mercury and Autism Disorders: A Meta-Analysis. Pediatric Health, Medicine and Therapeutics. 21 Sep 2020(11):369—378.
Jafari, T., et al. The association between mercury levels and autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Trace Elem Med Biol. 2017 Dec;44:289-297.
James, S.J., et al. Metabolic biomarkers of increased oxidative stress and impaired methylation capacity in children with autism. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;80(6):1611-7.
Jarusiewicz, B. Efficacy of Neurofeedback for Children in the Autistic Spectrum: A Pilot Study. Journal of Neurotherapy. 2002;6(4).
Jaswal, V.K., et al. Eye-tracking reveals agency in assisted autistic communication. Scientific Reports. 2020 May 12;10(1):7882.
Jyonouchi, H., et al. Dysregulated innate immune responses in young children with autism spectrum disorders: their relationship to gastrointestinal symptoms and dietary intervention. Neuropsychobiology. 2005;51(2):77-85.
Jyonouchi, H., et al. Evaluation of an Association between Gastrointestinal Symptoms and Cytokine Production against Common Dietary Proteins in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. J. Pediatr. 2005;146:605–610.
Jyonouchi, H., et al. Impact of innate immunity in a subset of children with autism spectrum disorders: a case control study. Journal of Neuroinflammation. 2008 Nov 21;5:52.
Jyonouchi, H., et al. Innate Immunity Associated with Inflammatory Responses and Cytokine Production against Common Dietary Proteins in Patients with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Neuropsychobiology. 2002;46:76–84.
Kaluzna-Czaplinska, J., et al. Identification of organic acids as potential biomarkers in the urine of autistic children using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci. 2014;966:70-6.
Kałużna-Czaplińska, J., et al. Nutritional Strategies and Personalized Diet in Autism-Choice or Necessity? Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2016;49:45–50.
Kane, R.C. A possible association between fetal/neonatal exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation and the increased incidence of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Med Hypotheses. 2004;62(2):195-7.
Kang, D.W., et al. Microbiota Transfer Therapy alters gut ecosystem and improves gastrointestinal and autism symptoms: an open-label study. Microbiome. 2017 Jan 23;5(1):10.
Kang, D.W., et al. Long-term benefit of Microbiota Transfer Therapy on autism symptoms and gut microbiota. Scientific Reports. 9, 5821 (2019).
Karagözlü, S., et al. The Relationship of Severity of Autism with Gastrointestinal Symptoms and Serum Zonulin Levels in Autistic Children. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2022;52:623–629.
Karhu, E., et al. Nutritional interventions for autism spectrum disorder. Nutr Rev. 2020 Jul 1;78(7):515-531.
Kawicka, A., et al. How Nutritional Status, Diet and Dietary Supplements Can Affect Autism. A Review. Rocz. Panstw. Zakl. Hig. 2013;64:1–12.
Kern, J.K., et al. A biomarker of mercury body-burden correlated with diagnostic domain specific clinical symptoms of autism spectrum disorder. Biometals. 2010;23(6):1043-51.
Khan, Z., et al. Slow CCL2-dependent translocation of biopersistent particles from muscle to brain. BMC Med. 2013 Apr 4;11:99.
Knivsberg, A.M., et al. A Randomised, Controlled Study of Dietary Intervention in Autistic Syndromes. Nutr. Neurosci. 2002;5:251–261.
Kobliner, V., et al. Reduction in Obsessive Compulsive Disorder and Self-Injurious Behavior With Saccharomyces boulardii in a Child with Autism: A Case Report. Integr Med (Encinitas). 2018 Dec;17(6):38-41.
Kohen-Raz, R., et al. Postural control in children with autism. J Autism Dev Disord. 1992 Sep;22(3):419-32.
Konkel, L. Phthalates and Autistic Traits: Exploring the Association between Prenatal Exposures and Child Behavior. Environ Health Perspec. 2020 Oct;128(10):104001.
Konstantareas, M.M., et al. Ear infections in autistic and normal children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 1987 Dec;17(4):585-94.
Konstantynowicz, J., et al. A Potential Pathogenic Role of Oxalate in Autism. Eur. J. Paediatr. Neurol. 2012;16:485–491.
Kordulewska, N.K., et al. Serum cytokine levels in children with spectrum autism disorder: Differences in pro- and anti-inflammatory balance. J Neuroimmunol. 2019 Dec 15;337:577066.
Kushak, R.I., et al. Intestinal Disaccharidase Activity in Patients with Autism: Effect of Age, Gender, and Intestinal Inflammation. Autism. 2011;15:285–294.
Kuwabara, H., et al. Altered metabolites in the plasma of autism spectrum disorder: a capillary electrophoresis time-of-flight mass spectroscopy study. PLoS One. 2013;8(9):e73814.
Lai, C.C.W., et al. The association between gut-health promoting diet and depression: A mediation analysis. J Affect Disord. 2023 Mar 1:324:136-142.
Langley, E.A., et al. High maternal choline consumption during pregnancy and nursing alleviates deficits in social interaction and improves anxiety-like behaviors in the BTBR T+Itpr3tf/J mouse model of autism. Behav Brain Res. 2015 Feb 1;278:210-20.
Lathe, R. Environmental factors and limbic vulnerability in childhood autism; Clinical report. American Journal of Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 4 (2): 183-197, 2008.
Lathe, R. Microwave Electromagnetic Radiation and Autism. E-Journal of Applied Psychology. June 2009;5(1):11-30.
Lavelle, T.A., et al. Economic burden of childhood autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics. 2014;133(3):e520-9.
Lee, K., et al. Autism-associated Shank3 mutations alter mGluR expression and mGluR-dependent but not NMDA receptor-dependent long-term depression. Synapse. 2019 Aug;73(8):e22097.
Lee, R.W.Y., et al. A modified ketogenic gluten-free diet with MCT improves behavior in children with autism spectrum disorder. Physiol Behav. 2018 May 1:188:205-211.
Li, C., et al. Study on Aberrant Eating Behaviors, Food Intolerance, and Stereotyped Behaviors in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Front. Psychiatry. 2020;11:493695.
Li, Q., et al. A Ketogenic Diet and the Treatment of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Front Pediatr. 2021 May 11:9:650624.
Li, Q., et al. Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder Among Children and Adolescents in the United States From 2019 to 2020. JAMA Pediatr. 2022 Sep 1;176(9):943-945.
Li, S.O., et al. Serum copper and zinc levels in individuals with autism spectrum disorders. Neuroreport. 2014;25(15):1216-20.
Li, Y., et al. Association between MTHFR C677T/A1298C and susceptibility to autism spectrum disorders: a meta-analysis. BMC Pediatrics. 2020(20)449.
Liao, T.C., et al. Comorbidity of Atopic Disorders with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Pediatr. 2016 Apr;171:248-55.
Lionetti, E., et al. Gluten Psychosis: Confirmation of a New Clinical Entity. Nutrients. 2015 Jul 8;7(7):5532-9.
López-Aranda, M.F., et al. Postnatal immune activation causes social deficits in a mouse model of tuberous sclerosis: Role of microglia and clinical implications. Sci Adv.2021 Sep 17;7(38):eabf2073.
Lucarelli, S., et al. Food Allergy and Infantile Autism. Panminerva Med. 1995;37:137–141.
Lyall, K., et al. Prenatal Serum Concentrations of Brominated Flame Retardants and Autism Spectrum Disorder and Intellectual Disability in the Early Markers of Autism Study: A Population-Based Case-Control Study in California. Environ Health Perspect. 2017 Aug 30;125(8):087023.
Mader, S., et al. The Role of Brain-Reactive Autoantibodies in Brain Pathology and Cognitive Impairment. Front Immunol. 2017; 8: 1101.
Madra, M., et al. Gastrointestinal Issues and Autism Spectrum Disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2021 Mar; 44(1): 69–81.
Maenner, M.J., et al. Prevalence and Characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorder Among Children Aged 8 Years – Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 Sites, United States, 2018. MMWR Surveill Summ. 2021 Dec 3;70(11):1-16.
Mahapatra, S., et al. Autism Treatment Evaluation Checklist (ATEC) Norms: A "Growth Chart" for ATEC Score Changes as a Function of Age. Children (Basel). 2018 Feb 16;5(2):25.
Maher, P. Methylglyoxal, advanced glycation end products and autism: is there a connection? Med Hypotheses. 2012;78(4):548-52.
Mandecka, A., et al. The importance of nutritional management and education in the treatment of autism. Rocz. Panstw. Zakl. Hig. 2022;73:247–258. [
Marí-Bauset, S., et al. Nutritional Impact of a Gluten-Free Casein-Free Diet in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2016;46:673–684.
Matthews, J.S., et al. Ratings of the Effectiveness of 13 Therapeutic Diets for Autism Spectrum Disorder: Results of a National Survey. J Pers Med. 2023 Sep 29;13(10):1448.
McCann, D., et al. Food Additives and Hyperactive Behaviour in 3-Year-Old and 8/9-Year-Old Children in the Community: A Randomised, Double-Blinded, Placebo-Controlled Trial. Lancet. 2007;370:1560–1567.
Melke, J., et al. Abnormal melatonin synthesis in autism spectrum disorders. Mol Psychiatry. 2008 Jan;13(1):90-8.
Mercer, J.S., et al. The Effects of Delayed Cord Clamping on 12-Month Brain Myelin Content and Neurodevelopment: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Am J Perinatol. 2022 Jan;39(1):37-44.
Mesleh, A.G., et al. Paving the Way toward Personalized Medicine: Current Advances and Challenges in Multi-OMICS Approach in Autism Spectrum Disorder for Biomarkers Discovery and Patient Stratification. J. Pers. Med. 2021;11:41.
Messer, A. Mini-review: polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants as potential autism risk factors. Physiol Behav. 2010 Jun 1;100(3):245-9.
Mierau, S.B., et al. Metabolic interventions in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Neurobiol Dis. 2019 Dec:132:104544.
Modabbernia, A., et al. Apgar score and risk of autism. Eur J Epidemiol. 2018 Oct 5.
Mold, M., et al. Aluminium in brain tissue in autism. J Trace Elem Med Biol. 2018 Mar;46:76-82.
Molina-López, J., et al. Food Selectivity, Nutritional Inadequacies, and Mealtime Behavioral Problems in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Compared to Neurotypical Children. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 2021;54:2155–2166.
Momeni, N., et al. A novel bloodbased biomarker for detection of autism spectrum disorders. Transl Psychiatry. 2012;2:e91.
Mu, C., et al. Metabolic Framework for the Improvement of Autism Spectrum Disorders by a Modified Ketogenic Diet: A Pilot Study. J Proteome Res. 2020 Jan 3;19(1):382-390.
Nankova, B.B., et al. Enteric bacterial metabolites propionic and butyric acid modulate gene expression, including CREB-dependent catecholaminergic neurotransmission, in PC12 cells–possible relevance to autism spectrum disorders. PLoS One. 2014;9(8):e103740.
Naviaux, R.K. Metabolic features of the cell danger response. Mitochondrion. 2014 May:16:7-17.
Nemecheck, P., et al. Autism Spectrum Disorder Symptoms Improve with Combination Therapy Directed at Improving Gut Microbiota and Reducing Inflammation. Applied Psychiatry. 2020 Jul; (1)1.
Nevison, C.D., et al. Diagnostic Substitution for Intellectual Disability: A Flawed Explanation for the Rise in Autism. J Autism Dev Disord. 2017 Sep;47(9):2733-2742.
Ngounou Wetie, A.G., et al. A pilot proteomic study of protein markers in autism spectrum disorder. Electrophoresis. 2014;35(14):2046-54.
Nicolson, G.L., et al. Chronic Mycoplasmal Infections in Autism Patients. Proc. Intern. Mind of a Child Conference, Sydney, Australia 2002.
Nicolson, G.L., et al. Evidence for Mycoplasma ssp., Chlamydia pneunomiae, and human herpes virus-6 coinfections in the blood of patients with autistic spectrum disorders. J Neurosci Res. 2007 Apr;85(5):1143-8.
Nikolova, V.L., et al. Acceptability, Tolerability, and Estimates of Putative Treatment Effects of Probiotics as Adjunctive Treatment in Patients With Depression. JAMA Psychiatry. 2023 Aug 1;80(8):842-847.
Nirmalkar, K., et al. Shotgun Metagenomics Study Suggests Alteration in Sulfur Metabolism and Oxidative Stress in Children with Autism and Improvement after Microbiota Transfer Therapy. Int J Mol Sci. 2022 Nov 3;23(21):13481.
Noto, A., et al. The urinary metabolomics profile of an Italian autistic children population and their unaffected siblings. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2014;27 Suppl 2:46-52.
Offut, A., et al. Case report: Substantial improvement of autism spectrum disorder in a child with learning disabilities in conjunction with treatment for poly-microbial vector borne infections. Front Psychiatry. 2023 Aug 18:14:1205545.
O'Hara, N.H., et al. The recovery of a child with autism spectrum disorder through biomedical interventions. Altern Ther Health Med. 2008 Nov-Dec;14(6):42-4.
Oliveira, G., et al. Mitochondrial dysfunction in autism spectrum disorders: a population-based study. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2005 Mar;47(3):185-9.
Olivito, I., et al. Ketogenic diet ameliorates autism spectrum disorders-like behaviors via reduced inflammatory factors and microbiota remodeling in BTBR T+ Itpr3tf/J mice. Exp Neurol. 2023 Aug:366:114432.
Ozonoff, S., et al. Onset patterns in autism: Variation across informants, methods, and timing. Autism Res. 2018 Mar 10.
Pall, M.L. Microwave frequency electromagnetic fields (EMFs) produce widespread neuropsychiatric effects including depression. J Chem Neuroanat. 2016 Sep;75(Pt B):43-51.
Pall, M.L. The Autism Epidemic Is Caused by EMFs, Acting via Calcium Channels and Chemicals Acting via NMDA-Rs: Downstream Effects Cause Autism, Autism One, Chicago, Illinois, USA, 2015.
Pall, M.L. Wi-Fi is an important threat to human health. Environ Res. 2018 Jul;164:405-416.
Palmer, et al. Environmental mercury release, special education rates, and autism disorder: an ecological study of Texas. Health Place. 2006(12):203-209.
Palmer, R.F., et al. Proximity to point sources of environmental mercury release as a predictor of autism prevalence. Health and Place. 2009 Mar;15(1):18-24.
Palmieri, L., et al. Altered calcium homeostasis in autism-spectrum disorders: evidence from biochemical and genetic studies of the mitochondrial aspartate/glutamate carrier AGC. Mol Psychiatry. 2010 Jan;15(1):38-52.
Palmieri, L., et al. Mitochondrial dysfunction in autism spectrum disorders: Cause or effect? Biochim Biophys Acta. 2010 June – July;1797(6-7):1130-1137.
Pastural, E., et al. Novel plasma phospholipid biomarkers of autism mitochondrial dysfunction as a putative causative mechanism. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids.2009 Oct;81(4):253-64.
Patil, A.A., et al. An Ayurvedic perspective about Autism - Literary Review. Journal of Ayurveda and Integrated Medical Sciences. 2023 Feb;8(2).
Patrick, R.P., et al. Vitamin D hormone regulates serotonin synthesis. Part 1: relevance for autism. FASEB J. 2014;28(6):2398-413.
Patterson, P.H. Immune involvement in schizophrenia and autism: etiology, pathology and animal models. Behav Brain Res. 2009 Dec 7;204(2):313-21.
Peterson, B.S., et al. Brain lactate as a potential biomarker for comorbid anxiety disorder in autism spectrum disorder-reply. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015;72(2):190-1.
Pietrzak, D., et al. The Therapeutic Role of Ketogenic Diet in Neurological Disorders. Nutrients. 2022 May 6;14(9):1952.
Pino-López, M., et al. [Parental occupational exposures and autism spectrum disorder in children]. Rev Esp Salud Publica. 2013 Jan-Feb;87(1):73-85.
Piwowarczyk, A., et al. Gluten-Free Diet in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Randomized, Controlled, Single-Blinded Trial. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2020;50:482–490.
Quan, L., et al. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Benefits of a Gluten-Free Diet and/or Casein-Free Diet for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Nutr. Rev. 2022;80:1237–1246.
Qiu, C., et al. Association Between Epidural Analgesia During Labor and Risk of Autism Spectrum Disorders in Offspring. JAMA Pediatr. 2020 Oct 12.
Qureshi, F., et al. Multivariate Analysis of Metabolomic and Nutritional Profiles among Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. J. Pers. Med. 2022;12:923.
Ranjbar, A., et al. Comparison of urinary oxidative biomarkers in Iranian children with autism. Res Dev Disabil. 2014;35(11):2751-5.
Ratajczak, H.V. Theoretical aspects of autism: biomarkers–a review. J Immunotoxicol. 2011;8(1):80-94.
Resseguie, M.E., et al. Aberrant estrogen regulation of PEMT results in choline deficiency-associated liver dysfunction. J Biol Chem. 2011 Jan 14;286(2):1649-58.
Reynolds, A., et al. Iron status in children with autism spectrum disorder. Pediatrics. 2012;130 Suppl 2:S154-9.
Rimland, B., et al. Parent Ratings of Behavioral Effects of Biomedical Interventions. Autism Research Institute Newsletter. Volume 34 ARI Publication; San Diego, CA, USA: 2009.
Ristori, M.V., et al. Autism, Gastrointestinal Symptoms and Modulation of Gut Microbiota by Nutritional Interventions. Nutrients. 2019;11:2812.
Rook, G.A., et al. Microbiota, immunoregulatory old friends and psychiatric disorders. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2014:817:319-56.
Rossignol, D.A., et al. Cerebral Folate Deficiency, Folate Receptor Alpha Autoantibodies and Leucovorin (Folinic Acid) Treatment in Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Pers Med. 2021 Nov 3;11(11):1141.
Rossignol, D. Diagnosis Autism: Now What? A Simplified Biomedical Approach. The Autism File. 2009(3).
Rutter, M. Changing concepts and findings on autism. J Autism Dev Disord. 2013;43(8):1749-57.
Ruggeri, B., et al. Biomarkers in autism spectrum disorder: the old and the new. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2014;231(6):1201-16.
Sakurai, T., et al. Slc25a12 disruption alters myelination and neurofilaments: a model for a hypomyelination syndrome and childhood neurodevelopmental disorders. Biol Psychiatry. 2010 May 1;67(9):887-94.
Shenouda, J., et al. Prevalence and Disparities in the Detection of Autism Without Intellectual Disability. Pediatrics. 2023 Feb 1;151(2):e2022056594.
Simpson, C.A., et al. The gut microbiota in anxiety and depression - A systematic review. Clin Psychol Rev. 2021 Feb:83:101943.
Singh, V.K., et al. Circulating autoantibodies to neuronal and glial filament proteins in autism. Pediatr Neurol. 1997 Jul;17(1):88-90.
Singh, V.K., et al. Elevated levels of measles antibodies in children with autism. Pediatr Neurol. 2003 Apr;28(4):292-4.
Skripuletz, T., et al. The choline pathway as a strategy to promote central nervous system (CNS) remyelination. Neural Regen Res. 2015 Sep;10(9):1369-70.
Smith, J., et al. Ketogenic diet restores aberrant cortical motor maps and excitation-to-inhibition imbalance in the BTBR mouse model of autism spectrum disorder. Behav Brain Res. 2016 May 1:304:67-70.
Spilioti, M., et al. Evidence for treatable inborn errors of metabolism in a cohort of 187 Greek patients with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Front Hum Neurosci. 2013;7:858.
Stafstrom, C.E., et al. The ketogenic diet as a treatment paradigm for diverse neurological disorders. Front Pharmacol. 2012 Apr 9:3:59.
Strunecka, A., et al. Immunoexcitotoxicity as the central mechanism of etiopathology and treatment of autism spectrum disorders: A possible role of fluoride and aluminum. Surg Neurol Int. 2018 Apr 9;9:74.
Swann., O.G., et al. Dietary fiber and its associations with depression and inflammation. Nutr Rev. 2020 May 1;78(5):394-411.
Tan S., et al. The Association between Sugar-Sweetened Beverages and Milk Intake with Emotional and Behavioral Problems in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Front. Nutr. 2022;9:927212.
Tan, Y., et al. Review of research progress on intestinal microbiota based on metabolism and inflammation for depression. Arch Microbiol. 2024 Mar 10;206(4):146.
Taurines, R., et al. Expression analyses of the mitochondrial complex I 75-kDa subunit in early onset schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder: increased levels as a potential biomarker for early onset schizophrenia. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2010 May;19(5):441-8.
Teitelbaum, P., et al. Movement analysis in infancy may be useful for early diagnosis of autism. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1998 Nov 10;95(23):13982-7.
Teitelbaum, P., et al. Reflexes gone astray in autism in infancy. Journal of Developmental and Learning Disorders, 2003;6, 15-22.
Theoharides, T.C. Is a subtype of autism an allergy of the brain? Clin Ther. 2013; 35(5):584-91.
Thomas, R.H., et al. The enteric bacterial metabolite propionic acid alters brain and plasma phospholipid molecular species: further development of a rodent model of autism spectrum disorders. J Neuroinflammation. 2012;9:153.
Thornton, I.M. Out of time: a possible link between mirror neurons, autism and electromagnetic radiation. Med Hypotheses. 2006;67(2):378-82.
Tomcheck, S.D., et al. Sensory Processing in Children with and without Autism: A Comparative Study Using the Short Sensory Profile. American Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2007. 61, 190-200.
Tomljenovic, L., et al. Do aluminum adjuvants contribute to the rising prevalence of autism? J Inorg Biochem. 2011 Nov;105(11):1489-99.
Tomova, A., et al. The Influence of Food Intake Specificity in Children with Autism on Gut Microbiota. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020;21:2797.
Treffert, D.A. Epidemiology of Infantile Autism. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1970;22(5):431-438.
Tzang, R.F., et al. Autism Associated With Anti-NMDAR Encephalitis: Glutamate-Related Therapy. Front Psychiatry. 2019 Jun 21:10:440.
Vargas, D.D., et al. Effectiveness of nutritional interventions on behavioral symptomatology of autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review. Nutr Hosp. 2022 Dec 20;39(6):1378-1388.
Vargas, D.L., et al. Neuroglial activation and neuroinflammation in the brain of patients with autism. Annals of Neurology. 2005 Jan;57(1):67-81.
Verena, L., et al. Elimination diets’ efficacy and mechanisms in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2017; 26(9): 1067–1079.
Vita, A.A., et al. Associations between Food-Specific IgG Antibodies and Intestinal Permeability Biomarkers. Front. Nutr. 2022;9:962093.
Vojdani, A., et al. A Gut Feeling for Immune Dysregulation & Neuroinflammation in Autism. The Autism File. 2009(31).
Vuillermot, S., et al. Vitamin D treatment during pregnancy prevents autism-related phenotypes in a mouse model of maternal immune activation. Mol Autism. 2017 Mar 7;8:9.
Wang, J., et al. Global Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder and Its Gastrointestinal Symptoms: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Front. Psychiatry. 2022;13:963102.
Wang, L., et al. Gastrointestinal microbiota and metabolite biomarkers in children with autism spectrum disorders. Biomark Med. 2014;8(3):331-44.
Wang, X., et al. Association between Dietary Quality and Executive Functions in School-Aged Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Front. Nutr. 2022;9:940246.
Warner, B.B. The contribution of the gut microbiome to neurodevelopment and neuropsychiatric disorders. Pediatr Res. 2019 Jan;85(2):216-224.
Wasilewska, J., et al. Gastrointestinal symptoms and autism spectrum disorder: links and risks – a possible new overlap syndrome. Pediatric Health Med Ther. 2015; 6: 153–166.
Waterhouse, L. Autism Overflows: Increasing Prevalence and Proliferating Theories. Neuropsychology Review. 2008 Dec;18(4):273-86.
Wen, Y., et al. Autism Pathway Network Analyses Identify Overlaps with Other Disease Groups, Involve Many Functions and Converge upon MAPK and Calcium Signaling. Conference: International Meeting for Autism Research, Baltimore Convention Center Baltimore, MD, May 2016.
Wen, Y., et al. Connecting the dots: Overlaps between autism and cancer suggest possible common mechanisms regarding signaling pathways related to metabolic alterations. Med Hypotheses. 2017 Jun:103:118-123.
Westmark, C.J. Soy Infant Formula and Seizures in Children with Autism: A Retrospective Study. PLoS ONE. 2014;9:e80488.
Whiteley, P., et al. The ScanBrit Randomised, Controlled, Single-Blind Study of a Gluten- and Casein-Free Dietary Intervention for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Nutr. Neurosci. 2010;13:87–100.
Williams, B.L., et al. Impaired Carbohydrate Digestion and Transport and Mucosal Dysbiosis in the Intestines of Children with Autism and Gastrointestinal Disturbances. PLoS ONE. 2011;6:e24585.
Williams, E.L., et al. Potential teratogenic effects of ultrasound on corticogenesis: implications for autism. Med Hypotheses. 2010 Jul;75(1):53-8.
Willfors, C., et al. Medical history of discordant twins and environmental etiologies of autism. Transl Psychiatry. 2017 Jan; 7(1): e1014.
Wilson, S., et al. Role of the NLRP3 Inflammasome in Responses. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2012 Feb 1; 129(2):Supplement AB162.
Windham, G.C., et al. Autism Spectrum Disorders in Relation to Distribution of Hazardous Air Pollutants in the San Francisco Bay Area. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2006 Sep;114(9):1438-44.
Wong, S., et al. Autism, Mitochondria and Polybrominated Diphenyl Ether Exposure. CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets. 2016;15(5):614-23.
Woodman, A.C., et al. Change in autism symptoms and maladaptive behaviors in adolescence and adulthood: the role of positive family processes. J Autism Dev Disord. 2015;45(1):111-26.
Wu, D.M., et al. Relationship Between Neonatal Vitamin D at Birth and Risk of Autism Spectrum Disorders: the NBSIB Study. J Bone Miner Res. 2018 Mar;33(3):458-466.
Yu, Y., et al. Efficacy and Safety of Diet Therapies in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Literature Review and Meta-Analysis. Front. Neurol. 2022;13:844117.
Zablotsky, B., et al. Estimated Prevalence of Children With Diagnosed Developmental Disabilities in the United States, 2014–2016. National Center for Health Statistics. NCHS Data Brief, No. 291, Nov 2017.
Zablotsky, B., et al. Prevalence and Trends of Developmental Disabilities among Children in the United States: 2009-2017. Pediatrics. 2019 Oct;144(4):e20190811.
Zaigham, M., et al. Prelabour caesarean section and neurodevelopmental outcome at 4 and 12 months of age: an observational study. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth. 2020 (20)564.
Zeisel, S.H. Choline: Critical Role During Fetal Development and Dietary Requirements in Adults. Annu Rev Nutr. 2006;26:229-50.
Zengeler, K.E., et al. SSRI treatment modifies the effects of maternal inflammation on in utero physiology and offspring neurobiology. Brain Behav Immun. 2023 Feb:108:80-97.